Roma Tre University

Founded in 1992 by the Ministry of Public Education, under the request of several professors of the Sapienza University of Rome, it was the third public university to be established in the metropolitan area of Rome. The university comprises 8 schools and 32 departments, enrolling 35,338 students^[2] and having 1,370 academic and professional staff. At present, the university offers 54 undergraduate degree programs, 75 master's degree programs, 16 doctoral schools and five PhD programs. It is the second-largest university of Rome by enrollment and one of the largest research-based institutions in the country.The idea of founding a third university in Rome was flagged in the middle 1980s when the Ministry of Public Education formed a committee of inquiry into higher education to deal with a perceived emergency in university enrollments in Rome. After much debate, a future campus location was selected in what was a semi-industrial part of the city and it was decided that the future university be named with a number in chronological order. Roma Tre University, was formally established in 1992 under the name Terza Università degli Studi di Roma (Third University of Rome). One of the milestones for Roma Tre, since its foundation, as well as a guideline for its development, was its incorporation in the surrounding area, characterised by the reclamation of old buildings and school premises, transformed into facilities for study and research.

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The Rector, the Vice Rector, the Academic Senate and the Board of Governors are the main governing bodies of the university, which are responsible for setting university policy and development strategy. The statute also provides for a University Executive Committee, the Students' Representative Council, the Council of Faculty Deans and a University Ombudsman.
The Rector is the official representative of the University. As well as calling and chairing meetings of the Academic Senate, the Board of Governors and the University Executive Committee, the Rector supervises the university's teaching, scientific and service structures, and gives appropriate guidance. The Rector also acts as ombudsman for the teaching and research autonomy of academic staff. The current Rector is Prof. Guido Fabiani.

Johns Hopkins University

The Johns Hopkins University (commonly referred to as Johns Hopkins, JHU, or simply Hopkins) is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Founded in 1876, the university was named after its first benefactor, the American entrepreneur, abolitionist, and philanthropist Johns Hopkins.^[6] His $7 million bequest—of which half financed the establishment of The Johns Hopkins Hospital—was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States at the time.^[7] Daniel Coit Gilman, who was inaugurated as the institution's first president on February 22, 1876,^[8] led the university to revolutionize higher education in the U.S. by integrating teaching and research.^[9] Adopting the concept of a graduate school from Germany's ancient Heidelberg University, Johns Hopkins University is considered the first research university in the United States.^[10]
Johns Hopkins is organized into ten divisions on campuses in Maryland and Washington, D.C. with international centers in Italy, China, and Singapore.^[11] The two undergraduate divisions, the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences and the Whiting School of Engineering, are located on the Homewood campus in Baltimore's Charles Village neighborhood.^[12] The medical school, the nursing school, and the Bloomberg School of Public Health are located on the Medical Institutions campus in East Baltimore.^[13] The university also consists of the Peabody Institute, the Applied Physics Laboratory, the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, the education school, the Carey Business School, and various other facilities.^[14]
Johns Hopkins was a founding member of the American Association of Universities.^[15] The University stands among the top 10 in US News' Best National Universities Rankings and among the top 20 in a number of international league tables.^{[16][17][18][19]} In 2016, Johns Hopkins University ranked 11th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings.^[20] Over the course of almost 140 years, thirty-six Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Johns Hopkins.^[21] Founded in 1883, the Blue Jays men’s lacrosse team has captured 44 national titles^[22] and joined the Big Ten Conference as an affiliate member in 2014.^[23]
On his death in 1873, Johns Hopkins, a Quaker entrepreneur and childless bachelor, bequeathed $7 million (approximately $140,000,000 today adjusted for consumer price inflation) to fund a hospital and university in Baltimore, Maryland.^[24] At that time this fortune, generated primarily from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad,^[25] was the largest philanthropic gift in the history of the United States.^[7]
The first name of philanthropist Johns Hopkins is the surname of his great-grandmother, Margaret Johns, who married Gerard Hopkins. They named their son Johns Hopkins, who named his own son Samuel Hopkins. Samuel named one of his sons after his father and that son would be the university's benefactor. Milton Eisenhower, a former university president, once spoke at a convention in Pittsburgh where the Master of Ceremonies introduced him as "President of John Hopkins." Eisenhower retorted that he was "glad to be here in Pittburgh."^[26]
The original board opted for an entirely novel university model dedicated to the discovery of knowledge at an advanced level, extending that of contemporary Germany.^[27] Building on the German education model of Wilhelm von Humboldt, it became dedicated to research.^[28] Johns Hopkins thereby became the model of the modern research university in the United States. Its success eventually shifted higher education in the United States from a focus on teaching revealed and/or applied knowledge to the scientific discovery of new knowledge.

University of Cambridge

The University of Cambridge (informally Cambridge University or simply Cambridge)^{[note 1]} is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's fourth-oldest surviving university.^[7] The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople.^[8] The two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as "Oxbridge".
Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges and over 100 academic departments organised into six schools.^[9] Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the world's oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world.^[10][11] The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, and a botanic garden. Cambridge's libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library.
In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had a total income of £1.64 billion, of which £398 million was from research grants and contracts.^[12] The central university and colleges have a combined endowment of around £5.89 billion, the largest of any university outside the United States.^[13] The university is closely linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as "Silicon Fen". It is a member of numerous associations and forms part of the "golden triangle" of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners, an academic health science centre.
Cambridge is consistently ranked as one of the world's best universities.^[14][15][16] The university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-two Nobel laureates and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, staff or alumni.
By the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. However, it was an incident at Oxford which is most likely to have formed the establishment of the university: two Oxford scholars were hanged by the town authorities for the death of a woman, without consulting the ecclesiastical authorities, who would normally take precedence (and pardon the scholars) in such a case, but were at that time in conflict with King John. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to cities such as Paris, Reading, and Cambridge. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough scholars remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university.^[18] In order to claim precedence, it is common for Cambridge to trace its founding to the 1231 charter from King Henry III granting it the right to discipline its own members (ius non-trahi extra) and an exemption from some taxes. (Oxford would not receive a similar enhancement until 1248.) ^[19]
A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach "everywhere in Christendom".^[20] After Cambridge was described as a studium generale in a letter by Pope Nicholas IV in 1290,^[21] and confirmed as such in a bull by Pope John XXII in 1318,^[22] it became common for researchers from other European medieval universities to visit Cambridge to study or to give lecture courses.^[21]

Duke University

Duke started in 1838 as Brown's Schoolhouse, a private subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present-day town of Trinity.^[13] Organized by the Union Institute Society, a group of Methodists and Quakers, Brown's Schoolhouse became the Union Institute Academy in 1841 when North Carolina issued a charter. The academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church.^[13] In 1892, Trinity College moved to Durham, largely due to generosity from Julian S. Carr and Washington Duke, powerful and respected Methodists who had grown wealthy through the tobacco and electrical industries.^[8] Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus, which is now known as East Campus. At the same time, Washington Duke gave the school $85,000 for an initial endowment and construction costs—later augmenting his generosity with three separate $100,000 contributions in 1896, 1899, and 1900—with the stipulation that the college "open its doors to women, placing them on an equal footing with men."^[14]
In 1924 Washington Duke's son, James B. Duke, established The Duke Endowment with a $40 million trust fund. Income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals, orphanages, the Methodist Church, and four colleges (including Trinity College). William Preston Few, the president of Trinity at the time, insisted that the institution be renamed Duke University to honor the family's generosity and to distinguish it from the myriad other colleges and universities carrying the "Trinity" name. At first, James B. Duke thought the name change would come off as self-serving, but eventually he accepted Few's proposal as a memorial to his father.^[8] Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly. Duke's original campus, East Campus, was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian-style buildings. By 1930, the majority of the Collegiate Gothic-style buildings on the campus one mile (1.6 km) west were completed, and construction on West Campus culminated with the completion of Duke Chapel in 1935.
In 1878, Trinity (in Randolph County) awarded A.B. degrees to three sisters—Mary, Persis, and Theresa Giles—who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men. With the relocation of the college in 1892, the Board of Trustees voted to again allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students. At the time of Washington Duke's donation in 1896, which carried the requirement that women be placed "on an equal footing with men" at the college, four women were enrolled; three of the four were faculty members' children. In 1903 Washington Duke wrote to the Board of Trustees withdrawing the provision, noting that it had been the only limitation he had ever put on a donation to the college. A woman's residential dormitory was built in 1897 and named the Mary Duke Building, after Washington Duke's daughter. By 1904, fifty-four women were enrolled in the college. In 1930, the Woman's College was established as a coordinate to the men's undergraduate college, which had been established and named Trinity College in 1924.

University of Oxford

The University of Oxford has no known foundation date.^[16] Teaching at Oxford existed in some form as early as 1096, but it is unclear when a university came into being.^[1] It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris.^[1] The historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university was named a chancellor from at least 1201 and the masters were recognised as a universitas or corporation in 1231. The university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III.^[17]
After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, later forming the University of Cambridge.^[9][18]

Aerial view of Merton College's Mob Quad, the oldest quadrangle of the university, constructed in the years from 1288 to 1378

The students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two "nations", representing the North (Northern or Boreales, which included the English people north of the River Trent and the Scots) and the South (Southern or Australes, which included English people south of the Trent, the Irish and the Welsh).^[19][20] In later centuries, geographical origins continued to influence many students' affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. In addition to this, members of many religious orders, including Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites and Augustinians, settled in Oxford in the mid-13th century, gained influence and maintained houses or halls for students.^[21] At about the same time, private benefactors established colleges to serve as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College,^[21] and John Balliol, father of a future King of Scots; Balliol College bears his name.^[19] Another founder, Walter de Merton, a Lord Chancellor of England and afterwards Bishop of Rochester, devised a series of regulations for college life;^[22][23] Merton College thereby became the model for such establishments at Oxford,^[24] as well as at the University of Cambridge. Thereafter, an increasing number of students forsook living in halls and religious houses in favour of living in colleges.^[21]
In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III.^[25] Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London; thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, which was unusual in western European countries.^[26][27]

Renaissance period

In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)

The new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar.
With the Reformation and the breaking of ties with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, settling especially at the University of Douai.^[28] The method of teaching at Oxford was transformed from the medieval scholastic method to Renaissance education, although institutions associated with the university suffered losses of land and revenues. As a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxford's reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment; enrolments fell and teaching was neglected.
In 1637^{[citation needed]}, Chancellor William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, codified the university's statutes. These, to a large extent, remained its governing regulations until the mid-19th century. Laud was also responsible for the granting of a charter securing privileges for the University Press, and he made significant contributions to the Bodleian Library, the main library of the university. From the inception of the Church of England until 1866, membership of the church was a requirement to receive the B.A. degree from Oxford, and "dissenters" were only permitted to receive the M.A. in 1871.^[29]
The university was a centre of the Royalist party during the English Civil War (1642–1649), while the town favoured the opposing Parliamentarian cause.^[30] From the mid-18th century onwards, however, the University of Oxford took little part in political conflicts.
Wadham College, founded in 1610, was the undergraduate college of Sir Christopher Wren. Wren was part of a brilliant group of experimental scientists at Oxford in the 1650s, the Oxford Philosophical Club, which included Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. This group held regular meetings at Wadham under the guidance of the College Warden, John Wilkins, and the group formed the nucleus which went on to found the Royal Society.

Modern period

An engraving of Christ Church, Oxford, 1742

The mid-19th century saw the impact of the Oxford Movement (1833–1845), led among others by the future Cardinal Newman. The influence of the reformed model of German university reached Oxford via key scholars such as Edward Bouverie Pusey, Benjamin Jowett and Max Müller.
The system of separate honour schools for different subjects began in 1802, with Mathematics and Literae Humaniores.^[31] Schools for Natural Sciences and Law, and Modern History were added in 1853.^[31] By 1872, the latter was split into Jurisprudence and Modern History. Theology became the sixth honour school.^[32] In addition to these B.A. Honours degrees, the postgraduate Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.) was, and still is, offered.^[33]

Brasenose Lane in the city centre, a street onto which three colleges back – Brasenose, Lincoln and Exeter.

Administrative reforms during the 19th century included the replacement of oral examinations with written entrance tests, greater tolerance for religious dissent, and the establishment of four women's colleges. 20th-century Privy Council decisions (e.g. the abolition of compulsory daily worship, dissociation of the Regius Professorship of Hebrew from clerical status, diversion of colleges' theological bequests to other purposes) loosened the link with traditional belief and practice. Furthermore, although the university's emphasis traditionally had been on classical knowledge, its curriculum expanded in the course of the 19th century to encompass scientific and medical studies. Knowledge of Ancient Greek was required for admission until 1920, and Latin until 1960.
The University of Oxford began to award doctorates in the first third of the 20th century. The first Oxford DPhil in mathematics was awarded in 1921.^[34]
At the start of 1914 the university housed approximately three thousand undergraduates and about 100 postgraduate students. The First World War saw many undergraduates and fellows join the armed forces. By 1918 virtually all fellows were in uniform and the student population in residence was reduced to 12 per cent.^[35] The University Roll of Service records that, in total, 14,792 members of the university served in the war, with 2,716 (18.36 per cent) killed.^[36] During the war years the deserted university buildings became hospitals, cadet schools and military training camps.^[35]
The mid-20th century saw many distinguished continental scholars, displaced by Nazism and communism, relocating to Oxford.
The list of distinguished scholars at the University of Oxford is long and includes many who have made major contributions to British politics, the sciences, medicine, and literature. More than 50 Nobel laureates and more than 50 world leaders have been affiliated with the University of Oxford.^[15]

Harvard University

Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. It was initially called "New College" or "the college at New Towne". In 1638, the college became home for North America's first known printing press, carried by the ship John of London.^[28][29] In 1639, the college was renamed Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard, who was an alumnus of the University of Cambridge. He had left the school £779 and his library of some 400 books.^[30] The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650.
In the early years the College trained many Puritan ministers.^[31] (A 1643 publication said the school's purpose was "to advance learning and perpetuate it to posterity, dreading to leave an illiterate ministry to the churches when our present ministers shall lie in the dust".)^[32] It offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—​​many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—​​but conformed Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any particular denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational and Unitarian churches.^[33]
The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701. In 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism.

19th century

John Harvard statue, Harvard Yard

Throughout the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas of the power of reason and free will became widespread among Congregationalist ministers, putting those ministers and their congregations in tension with more traditionalist, Calvinist parties.^[34]:1–4 When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, a struggle broke out over their replacements. Henry Ware was elected to the chair in 1805, and the liberal Samuel Webber was appointed to the presidency of Harvard two years later, which signaled the changing of the tide from the dominance of traditional ideas at Harvard to the dominance of liberal, Arminian ideas (defined by traditionalists as Unitarian ideas).^{[34]:4–5[35]:24}
In 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassiz's approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans' "participation in the Divine Nature" and the possibility of understanding "intellectual existences". Agassiz's perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the "divine plan" in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on a presumed archetype for his evidence. This dual view of knowledge was in concert with the teachings of Common Sense Realism derived from Scottish philosophers Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart, whose works were part of the Harvard curriculum at the time. The popularity of Agassiz's efforts to "soar with Plato" probably also derived from other writings to which Harvard students were exposed, including Platonic treatises by Ralph Cudworth, John Norris and, in a Romantic vein, Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The library records at Harvard reveal that the writings of Plato and his early modern and Romantic followers were almost as regularly read during the 19th century as those of the "official philosophy" of the more empirical and more deistic Scottish school.^[36]
Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the favored position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, but by Transcendentalist Unitarian convictions. Derived from William Ellery Channing and Ralph Waldo Emerson, these convictions were focused on the dignity and worth of human nature, the right and ability of each person to perceive truth, and the indwelling God in each person.^[37]

20th century

Brown University

Established in 1764, Amber is th
e seventh most seasoned college in the United States, and one of its a ton of acclaimed school apprenticeship organizations. It is portion of the Ivy League and, as a foundation that prides itself on openness, was the native of the partners to gain acknowledgment from every single religious association.

Initially claimed the College of Rhode Island, Brown's native home was Warren, Rhode Island before it migrated to College Hill, ignoring the state's fundamental city-limits Providence, in 1770. Around 34 years after the fact, in acknowledgment of a $5,000 stipend from alum and curve Providence specialist Nicholas Brown, the college was renamed to mirror today's title.

Today's capturing grounds is manufactured up of 230 barrio more than 150 land aural strolling ambit of city Providence and adjoining to the dynamic Thayer Street, Wickenden Street and Wayland Square range acknowledgment and limited affiliation blend, a some portion of flourishing shopping, feasting and amusement.

The college's games groups play underneath the name of the "Cocoa Bears". Theodore Francis Green, an above Rhode Island representative and US congressperson, outsider a golden buck as the college's mascot. Today, Bruno the Amber buck is still the college's prime team promoter.

A characterizing proper of the college was its expansion of the "Chestnut Curriculum", which adjusted undergrad apprenticeship inexhaustibly at the organization. It was forceful by Francis Wyland, Brown's fourth president, who contended that a student ought to acknowledge the relinquish to "study what he picked, all that he picked, and obliteration yet what he picked". The new "Open Curriculum", which was propelled in 1970, acclimated acknowledgment to propel their own sum class as opposed to be apprenticed to a doled out "aesthetic sciences instruction". It has genuine Brown's undergrad colleague right up 'til the present time.

Other than study, Amber is a curve investigation foundation. The college has entry to seven Nobel laureates including graduated class Craig C. Mello and Jerry White who won for examination or analgesic and accord individually, and acknowledged material science giftedness associate Leon Cooper. Fields Medal champ David Mumford is emeritus aide of actuated science at the college.

Cocoa's different student body is exemplified by outstanding graduated class from all kinds of different backgrounds. From the precursor of American apprenticeship Horace Mann and The Office splendid John Krasinski, to Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark and agent and humanitarian John D. Rockefeller, the college's people are differed. Emma Watson, who played Hermione Granger in the Harry Potter movies, quickening from Amber in 2014, tolerating exchanged from the University of Oxford.